Outline the principal sources of authority available to US presidents Essay

The president is naturally the focus of US politics. Media coverage will of course always focus on the President. The position is undoubtedly the most significant in world politics and the president of the United States is commonly recognised as the most powerful person in the world. In addition to this, executive organisation is organised in a pyramidal fashion towards the oval office and within the executive the President is a dominant figure. However, form this brief explanation of the Presidency the true complications that it is marked by are unclear. The president is in a position where negotiation and compromise are necessities. A president that makes government work is one that has a program and uses his resources to get it enacted. A good president is an activist: he sets the agenda, is attentive to the progress being made, and willingly accepts responsibility for what happens. However, the President must also accept that others have resources and responsibility and incorporate this into his actions and decisions. The United States has a separated, not a presidential system and no one least of all presidents can be entrusted with excessive authority. The true nature of the Presidency; and the powers endowed to the occupant of the White House; is actually a lot more complicated than it appears on the surface. It may seem that the directly elected president who holds such a strong position and image in world politics is ensured a smooth passage to achieving the policies they want to. However, whilst a lot of the resources of power expected to be possessed by someone of such a high global standing are enjoyed by the American President, there are constraints to which a successful election guarantees political dominance. Presidents learn many refrains on the job, if they don’t know already. Bill Clinton learned the difficulties of split party control by having to battle Republican majorities in congress. George W Bush had witnessed firsthand his father’s problems of governing with a Democratic congress. He also learnt about the limitations of executive power on the job as governor of Texas. There is never a guarantee that election by a wide margin ensures a powerful president throughout his term in office. Likewise, having high public approval ratings doesn’t necessarily ensure a free rein for the President. Johnson remarked how winning power doesn’t guarantee a President with executive power. He has to establish what is the ‘right to govern’ by inspiring confidence on the people and fulfilling the leadership roles expected. Every president has to develop a moral underpinning to his power and assert a style and authority on the President, or he soon discovers that he has no power at all. Obviously, public and media focus is always on the President and as a result, expectations of a President often far exceed the individual’s personal, political, institutional or constitutional capacities. Focusing too much on the Presidency can lead to a seriously distorted picture of how national government works. The resources and authority of the president, although large, are not as clear cut as it initially seems. To begin with, a President’s relationship with congress is obviously crucial to him exercising a strong level of power. However, the president’s political status and strategic positioning does not end with the state of congress. The public interpretation of strength associated with the election results, the exact number of seats possessed by the President’s party in both the Senate and the House of Representatives, midterm election results, the nature of public and media opinion and the contentiousness of the issues all affect the strategic behaviour of the President. The importance of change and the dynamic nature of American politics cannot be overlooked. Even a President who commands government on the back of a convincing election and high public ratings have been unable to protect their apparent legitimacy against changing conditions. For example, President Nixon demonstrated that even though he had been mandated, misuse of his position and resources caused his downfall. Public trust is a huge resource of presidential authority and something that cannot afford to be jeopardised. I believe the authority of the president can be broken down into two sections. He has the strategic capacity to set the nation’s political agenda, predominantly by using the powers endowed to him by the constitution. He also has the tactical capacity to negotiate and bargain with other political actors in order to win over both congress and public opinion, two crucial groups to keep satisfied in order to properly implement his policy agenda. There is then a subset of factors that influence the extent to which the president can carry out the above activities. These influences make up the president’s resources of power and how they are used will determine how powerful and dominant he can become. There is no doubt that the largest resource of authority available to the president is the constitution. It is certainly the most important area to consider when analysing the authority of the president. Article 2 of the constitution demonstrates why the position of the American president is so huge. The explicit grants and limitations of power awarded to the president in this article of the constitution are the basis on which the contemporary American president is built. Executive power of the federal government is vested in the president. He has the power to appoint ambassadors, members of the cabinet, Justices of the Supreme Court and Judges of lower federal courts, with the advice and consent of the senate. He can propose legislative measures and veto bills emerging from congress. In terms of the armed forces and foreign policy, the president in America is similar to that in France in the sense that he regards this as his reserved domain. The above clauses therefore make up the basis of the president’s power. However, it is clear from this that whilst it obviously makes the president the primary actor in the American political system, there is room for manoeuvre and this alone cannot give us all the information we need in learning about the president’s resources of authority. The fact that there is a lot of gaps to be filled in article 2 of the constitution mean that the position of power in the American political system is of a dynamic nature. A lot of the presidents other resources of power outside of the prerogative powers endowed by the constitution are circumstantial and possess the potential to change at any moment. Presidents will claim that there are some powers endowed to them that are inherent in the constitution that are not explicitly stated. These are interpreted by different presidents in different ways. This seems to be interpreted from the statutory delegation of power by congress to the presidency. The best example of this is Lincoln declaring martial law during the civil war under emergency powers. The constitution’s generality and ambiguity requires gaps to be filled so various presidents can appeal to this ambiguity in asserting that they possess unwritten constitutional provisions. However, this process of filling gaps is untidy, intellectually inconsistent and highly contentious. Not confined to the judicial branch of government, it incorporates the executive, congress, interest groups and public opinion. Therefore, presidents have to develop other resources of authority available to them in order for them to be able to abuse the apparent unwritten elements of the constitution. Whilst the principle of inherent powers of the president possessed in the constitution is now accepted by the majority, then extent to which they exist remains a matter of dispute. The media is a huge resource for the president. The media have over the course of the 20th century changed the nature of the presidency through the introduction of both radio and television. The media has been enhanced as a significant source of strategic leadership in an otherwise fragmented political system. Media attention naturally focuses on the White House and that doesn’t show any sign of changing. The Oval Office is where the prestige of American politics lies. Therefore, the president is showcased through a proportion of the media as the only significant part of the political system. This in general acts to strengthen the president’s political authority and journalists are generally treated well by the president in order to guarantee this strengthening. However, inherent in this action is an acceptance that the media always have been and are now more than ever a threat to presidents. The legitimacy received by the president through being directly elected and no one in the American system being mandated in the same way is a great resource for the president. The elected part of the executive branch of American system is singular, not collective, and the president is in consequence, a prominent national figure: his constituency is his nation and he therefore enjoys a singular electoral legitimacy. Both Congress and the Supreme Court are institutions with multiple memberships whereas the presidency is a strictly one member group. Having no rival in this sense helps the president appeal directly to the heart of the American people and makes them the foremost person in American politics. This is essentially the American president’s greatest political asset. Political skill is certainly an important factor in the success that presidents have in asserting leadership. Lyndon B Johnson was able to exert more authority than he was constitutionally defined to do so because he had particularly good persuasive skills. Additionally, Ronald Reagan possessed strong strategic skills that enabled him to manipulate his position effectively. President’s can exercise neither strategic nor persuasive leadership by relying upon their limited resources of authority; much depends upon the skill with which a president is able to bring political influence and persuasion to bear. However, the most important controlling factor of the president’s level of authority is his relationship with other key political actors. He can maintain high standing with the public if his cabinet is appointed sensibly and he has a healthy working relationship with congress. Therefore, other political actors are an important resource of the president’s authority. By making clever decisions about who to be in his cabinet, a president can accomplish a number of goals. He can reward significant supporters, as Bush did with his appointment of James Baker as secretary of state. In addition to this, he can build support amongst other factions of the country by keeping his cabinet diverse. This tactic can especially be used to strengthen links with racial groups and women. All recent presidents have appointed at least one black person and one woman to their cabinet. Finally, cabinet is essential to maintaining a good relationship with congress, the key obstacle at times to presidential authority. It is necessary for a president to be successful that he exercises strategic and tactical leadership of congress. Presidents such as Jimmy Carter who do not reliably achieve legislative leadership are generally regarded as having failed. It tends to be crucial for a president to be authoritative with congress to fully accomplish his goals and take full advantage of the resources available to him. Taking on the role of chief legislator is an important aspect of a president’s authority. Maintaining a good relationship with congress tends to bring together all the important resources available to the president and if carried out effectively culminate becoming the chief legislator and that is effectively when the president is at his most powerful. A president’s political skill and ability to handle other key political actors is exemplified in his relationship with congress. Furthermore, maintaining a higher standard with the public enables him to be more dominant in regard to congress. This is the area where the US executive differs mainly from that of parliamentary systems. The following problem is encountered by the French president as well as the American. Managing congress can be difficult, especially when the majority party is different to that of the president. Congress loses its degree of significance as a political resource when the party of the president do not enjoy a majority and it becomes a lot more difficult for the president to act as the chief legislator. The president in America does not have the backing of a party whose main responsibility is to sustain government. This is significantly different to parliamentary systems where the primary function of parliament is to maintain government. Therefore, parliament in the UK takes on a less significant role in analysing the dynamic nature of institutional power as it tends to stay relatively constant through a term than Congress in the US. This is made even more complicated by midterm elections. However, what is similar in the management of the two executives is how crucial political skill and management of relations is. Neither a President nor a Prime Minister is able to overlook relations with key political actors around him. In conclusion, the principal sources of presidential authority are like most issues in world politics. They are dynamic and dependent on the nature of the president and the circumstances he finds himself in, he can add to the obvious constitutionally defined roles as president through smooth management of colleagues, congress and public opinion. Whilst the constitution remains the most significant resource, there is a lot of scope for extra authority through effective management of the situation the president is in. This is true of all political systems, whilst there is usually a constitutionally defined role for executive leadership, political skill will determine the extent to which this leadership is implemented.

Making Moral Decisions: George Orwell and Claire McCarthy Essay

When an incident occurs, people would like to deal with it in the way they prefer. However, there always are some situations that force people to make decisions that are opposite to their own will since people live in society and they need to consider other’s opinions. No matter if people realize or not, it is hard to make decisions totally in terms of if they like it or not, because there are many factors which need to take into consideration like moral and ethics and the effect exerted on whole society and other people’s opinion. Both George Orwell and Claire McCarthy faced the dilemma of making a choice between their feelings and other people’s thoughts. In Orwell’s article â€Å"Shooting an Elephant†, he describes a poor elephant that destroyed people’s homes and kills a man. The people in town wanted him, as sub-divisional police officer, to kill that elephant. Orwell in fact did not want to kill the elephant but he did because other peo ple wanted him to do and pressured him to make that choice. Claire McCarthy met a similar problem in her article â€Å"Dog Lab†. She knew dog lab was an efficient way for students like her to learn knowledge but she was feeling terrible and uncomfortable with killing dogs even though there were some values to do so. People in society approve of dog lab as the way to learn and they have not yet found other methods to substitute it. However, McCarthy believed in terms of morals and ethics she cannot kill an innocent dog. These two authors have no choice because they have to shoulder their responsibility. Orwell killed the elephant because he represented those people who dominate Burma and he needed to satisfy the masses in order to behave like the people in charge. McCarthy killed a dog during the experiment because she needed to well prepared for future operation on her patients. Making a decision is never easy especially when people faced with moral or ethical decisions, because those hard choices that could affect people’s lives always carried with obligations which people need to  shoulder. Choice is usually accompanied with conflicts since the one option people gain from choice is always at the cost of giving up another option. There are not always a way to obtain benefits from two o ptions just like that it is hard to satisfy two sides of people who hold different viewpoint. Orwell experienced a conflict and he wrote, â€Å"To come all that way, rifle in hand, with two thousand people marching at my heels†¦The crowd would laugh at me. And my whole life, every white man’s life in the East, was one long struggle not to be laugh at. But I did not want to shoot the elephant.† (461) Orwell as a white man, especially as a sub-divisional police, is one of the people who implement imperialism on Burma. He needed to behave like the way he should be and need to take his position and show his ability. All above point out a way for him that was to kill the elephant. However, he did not want to kill the elephant at all, because he believed the elephant was innocent and did not deserve death penalty. These two sides of thought cause a conflict. McCarthy agreed with Orwell’s feeling when she met the similar situation, which is the conflict between innocent animals and her own benefits. She stated, â€Å"I didn’t like the idea of doing the lab; it felt wrong. Yet for some reason I was embarrassed that I felt that way, and the lab seemed so important. The more I thought about it the more confused I became.† (482) McCarthy in terms of ethics felt uncomfortable with dog lab. It was not fair to take others’ life if they did nothing wrong. However, this is efficient way to learn knowledge as a medical student and she did not want to lose this chance. Both Orwell and McCarthy needed to make a choice between killing animal or not. This decision would be struggle since it related to morals and ethics and caused a conflict between people’s inner voice and what others want them to do. Following people’s inner feeling did not mean self-interest, because when conflicts occur people’s inner voice was more likely to be moral one rather than obeying others’ opinion. If people make a decision of conflicts, no matter which side they chose they have to accept the consequence their decision caused. It is not always right for a person to do most people want him to do but it is a safe way since most people stand in his side and the consequence may be better than the result of his own thought. At this point, when conflicts occurred both Orwell and McCarthy followed the way which most of people chose or wante d them to do since the  better consequence would caused. Orwell stated, â€Å" And suddenly I realized that I should have to shoot the elephant after all. The people expected it of me and I had got to do it; I could feel their two thousand wills pressing me forward, irresistibly†¦that I first grasped the hollowness, the futility of the white man’s dominion in the East.† (461) Even though Orwell did not want to kill the elephant, he still did because he tried to make this incident to be simple and push it into a normal way. If Orwell kills the elephant, it will be reasonable and acceptable not only because the legal law but because satisfied Burmese desire as well, they got elephant meat as food. If Orwell did not kill the elephant the only result was Burmese would be more resentful to White men and may be cause further negative influence which would cause unstable of the society under imperialism. Compared with the consequence of two options, it should be better to choose to kill the elephant. Similarly, McCarthy chose to do dog lab after serious consideration and believe it should be better to do experiment. She stat ed â€Å"I was quiet during these discussions. I did not want to kill a dog, but I certainly wanted to take advantage of every learning opportunity offered me†¦Doing well had become so important that I was afraid to trust anyone; doing well had become more important than anything.† (481) Although McCarthy felt uncomfortable to kill the dog, she wanted to learn knowledge. If she did not come to experiment, others students would learn more knowledge than she did so that they can do much better in following study. In another aspect, she thought kill the innocent dog was not good but actually she did not experience dog lab before so that can not just deny the value of this experiment. She need to have a try to help her confirm what she real want to do in the future. Both authors take the consequence of their action into account and then make the better choice, because moral decision are not simply end by making the choice and it always followed by responsibility. Each decision people make will cause corresponding results which means people need to take responsibility when they are making decisions. However, shouldering responsibility not only happened when people are making decisions but happened after making choice as well. In Orwell’s article, he stated, à ¢â‚¬Å"I waited a long time for him to die, but his breathing did not weaken. Finally I fired my two remaining shots into the spot where I thought his heart must  be. The thick blood welled out of him like red velvet, but still he did not die†¦. I felt that I had got to put an end to that dreadful noise.† (463) When Orwell decided to kill the elephant and took his duty as police officer, he also needed to take responsibility for this elephant’s life. Based on morals and ethics, after shooting the elephant Orwell wanted end its life soon and did not make elephant suffering from pain. Even though he can not change others thoughts and save the elephant, he tried to shoulder responsibility for the elephant’s life after making decision. At this point, McCarthy behaved like what Orwell did after she decided to kill the dog. She said, â€Å"Helping with the anesthesia, I thought, would be taking full responsibility for what I was doning, something that was very important to me. I was going to face what I was doing†¦ Maybe in part I thought of it as my penance.† (482) McCarthy really struggled for choosing to kill the dogs or not. However, after making the decision, McCarthy insisted on helping with the anesthesia because she knew she needed to take charge of dogs’ lives. When she decided to kill the dog, it carried with responsibility which means to start an incident from the beginning to the ending and treat every part seriously. After this experience, McCarthy firmly thought dog lab was really wrong for her and she made a decision to make some changes which also can be regarded as the way to shoulder responsibility. It is not difficult to find the common point that both authors choose to take their responsibility after making the choice in terms of morals and ethics. As the member of society, people need to realize the significant of taking the responsibility after making decisions. In modern society, there are always conflicts occur between what a person want to do and what others or the society what him to do about moral problems. However, it is not hard to make the decision because when people compared with the consequence which two options would caused, they can always find the better choice for the situation. After making decisions, people need to think about their responsibility. Both George Orwell and Claire McCarthy show the good quality after making decision which is not only shoulder their responsibility but also try to make change when they feel their decision are not good at all. At beginning of Orwell’s article, it was easy to tell his resentful for imperialism and implied he would leave his job and sought for change one day. Similarly, at the ending of McCarthy, she suggested after  her experiment she realized doing dog lab was not the method she wanted to learn and she would like to change the other way to go. Accordingly, when people faced moral decisions, as the member of modern society, they need to choose they way which they can obtain better consequence and have ability to take the responsibility. These are people’s basic obligations to deal with moral conflicts.

How the Alchemist relates to African American Studies Essay

How the Alchemist relates to African American Studies - Essay Example In fact, the same sense of dare is conveyed by several other characters of the story as well, like the camel driver said while talking to Santiago, â€Å"We are afraid of losing what we have, whether it’s our life or our possessions or our property. But this fear evaporates when we understand that our life stories and the history of the world were written by the same hand† (Coelho 76). African American literature narrates several accounts of the African tribes’ wars most of them originated because one tribe wanted to attack the other and confiscate their possessions in order to become richer than the other. One can sense the same level of dare in Santiago’s resolution to keep going on and encounter further challenges with whatever he attains rather than reverting to where he came from. His ability to struggle and find work elsewhere and earn his living also tells that he is hard working like African

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Visual Culture - Essay Example (Wikipedia) This text will focus on psychoanalytic theories that evidently apply to visual culture. Designed to explain how this particular science that speaks of sexuality, creativity, repression, fetishism, drives and the like could possibly be applied to visual culture, work of two renowned artists would be discussed. Andy Warhol's paintings of Marilyn have attracted much commentary from critics attempting to discern any complexity of thought or feeling in Warhol's treatment of the original image. With the fascination and argument it has evoked it serves as a perfect example that could relate psychoanalytic theories with visual arts. Alexander McQueen, with his continually provocative shows and outrageous designs, has solidified his reputation as the bad boy of fashion. His choice of collections compels potent mix of controversy, creativity, and technical mastery had made him renowned and notable artist. An exploration into his art would greatly substantiate visual cultures relevant to psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic theory is a general term for approaches to psychoanalysis which attempt to provide a conceptual framework more-or-less independent of clinical practice rather than based on empirical analysis of clinical case. Its development is described as a primarily unconscious - that is, beyond awareness - and is heavily coloured by emotion. The term often attaches to conceptual uses of analysis in critical theory, literary, film, or other art criticism, broader intersubjective phenomena. For example, those broadly conceived as cultural or social in nature, religion, law, or other non-clinical contexts, sometimes signifying its use as a hermeneutic or interpretative framework. In some respects this can resemble phenomenology insofar as it attempts to account for consciousness and unconsciousness in a more or less eidetic fashion, although there are inherent conflicts between phenomenology as a study of consciousness and the frequent psychoanalytic emphasis on the unconscious or n on-coincidence of consciousness with itself(wiki). Some of the theoretical orientation of psychoanalysis results in part from its separation from psychiatry and institutionalisation closer to departments of philosophy and literature. Its diverse influence have dispersed its implications toward racial and colonial identity, distinct Marxist positions that had attempt to use psychoanalysis in the study of ideology, work in literary studies informed by philosophy, psychology, neurology, Freudian and Lacanian theory. Theory can be so expansive a container as to include the work of Gilles Deleuze and Flix Guattari, who believed psychoanalysis ultimately radically reductionist and strongly opposed the psychiatric institutions of their time. Sometimes it heavily informs gender studies and queer theory. Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein, and Jacques Lacan are often treated as canonical thinkers by Lacanian psychoanalysts despite the considerable objections to their authority. Freud's psychoanalytic theory provided a radically new approach to the analysis and treatment of what had been perceived as abnormal adult behaviour. Behaviours were once ignored and were rather substituted with psychological explanation. The novelty of Freud's approach was in recognizing that neurotic behavior is not random or

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French and American Revolution - Essay Example This taxation infuriated them as these taxes were never approved by the parliament of the respective colonies. The colonies stated that they are prepared to pay taxes, but not those which are not based on the principle of ignorance and are not equitable. Similarly, in the France, the monarchy imposed heavy taxes on the ordinary people of France to pay-off their trading debts. One important thing in this was that nobles and rich of France were not obliged to pay these taxes. This angered the ordinary population of France which was toiled and poked hard by the monarchy, they were subject to. Although, the cause of American Revolution is simple and very easily understandable, that is it was triggered due to Britain's greed, whereas the reason behind French revolution is very deeply rooted. Their King had divided the people into two social classes and from there he gave luxuries to the rich class at the expense of poor class. This left the poor class on the verge of Famine and this movement started which was aimed to depose the king. On the other hand, American Revolution also started to get rid of Britain from their homeland and to gain independence. From the above disFrom the above discussion, we can clearly identify that both of these movements were started by the oppressed and abused classes of the respective countries and were able to get rid of the authority which was oppressing them, but the end results were quite different for both of these nations. Americans on one hand were able to get rid of the British and gained independence and constituted their law, but French, on the other hand, were left only to see Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to the position of power. (Mark Steel, 2003) One reason for the difference in the outcomes of the two movements was the lack of organization and planning in French movement as compared to American Revolution. In the American movement, the Congress decided when to start the movement. They had a meeting and decided that they are ready to take over the government from the British, before rebelling against the foreign forces of oppression. The movement was entirely planned and once the Britishers left, Congress took over the government and gave American a gift of constitution for their long struggle against oppression. On the other hand, French were fighting against the upper social class. In the other words, they were not fighting for the self-rule, like the Americans, but they were rebelling against a tyranny that supported rich and nobles at the cost of ordinary people of France. Similarly, French did not have any authority to take over the government once the monarchy is deposed, whereas American had Congress to take over the g overnment after Britishers left. This gave the opportunity to Napoleon Bonaparte to seize the position of power and ultimately he ascended on the throne and once again, the French find themselves in the midst of monarchy. The reason behind this was that Americans were fighting against foreign forces which meant that if they win, the Britishers could be forced out, whereas it was different in the France's case, they were fighting among

Knowledge and Horizon of Ignorance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Knowledge and Horizon of Ignorance - Essay Example The similarity between the definition for knowledge and that of ignorance is that both involve the need to understand (or not) of a "subject" or "something". This writer believes there are two keys points that provide direction to this essay statement. The first point is that there must be a purpose for expanding the field of knowledge. Working towards understanding a purpose or subject can only reduce the lack of knowledge in that specific area, and, as a result, reduce the horizon of ignorance. Secondly, while field of knowledge is most commonly understood to encompass the compartmentalized areas of pursuits like mathematics, natural and human sciences, history, the arts, and ethics, it must also be noted that without the ability to justify the knowledge within these fields (often using self-awareness, intuition, faith, and logic, authority) and form a point of view, knowledge is useless and the horizon for ignorance increases. In this instance, the word horizon refers to the "boun dary where the sky seems to meet the ground or sea, where the higher the observer (or the more a person expands the field of knowledge without a purpose and justifiable claim), the lower and more distant is his visible horizon (the more a person's ignorance increases, or horizon of ignorance increases)." (Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary 2008) Essentially, the increase in the horizon of ignorance happens only if the expansion in the field of knowledge is not accompanied with a purpose that is justified with an achieved point of view. Therefore, this writer believes the essay statement to be untrue. While the opening argument for this essay uses another of Henry Miller's quotes to make a point, critics who are familiar with Miller's life work might also argue that the range of this man's work may not necessarily reflect a purpose in expanding his field of knowledge which is predominantly in writing. Miller was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1891, and died in 1980 in Los Angeles California. Between his birth and death, Miller lived in Paris so he could fuel his charismatic rebelliousness, albeit in destitute and depended on the charity of his friends. The French Surrealists and the Dadaism movement heavily influenced Miller, and this led him to write a number of novels, including Tropic of Cancer, Black Spring, and Tropic of Capricorn, which challenged American cultural values and moral attitudes through the discussion of sexual subjects (Miller, Henry). In his professional lifetime, Miller wrote novels that were banned in the United States on the grounds of obscenity, played the piano, painted, wrote plays and had a part in a film. While it is difficult to understand the motivation behind Miller's zest for the varied subjects of concentration, it should be noted that even with his rebellious background, his forward-looking attitude provided a purpose for pursuing each field and could justify each need as

Leagile Manufacturing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Leagile Manufacturing - Essay Example The paper throws light on the concept of Just in time was introduced to reduce the cost of the overall production by reducing the waste in the process. The reduction in the waste associated with the production process decreased the unnecessary cost of storage and maintenance which also contributed in the overall decrease of the cost of the production, besides, concept of Just in Time was aimed to reduce the involvement of high proportion of its working capital towards the stock as Just in Time involves the ordering of stock only when required. Considering the advantages of the Just in Time technology, the vice president of the organization, Scott Murphy, decided to implement the system in order to provide the organization with an effective edge in respect of its competitors. However the implementation of the Just in Time environment emerged to be a failure for the organization, and problem was encountered in almost every aspect of the business. After the new system was implemented in the organization by Scott Murphy, the organization found out that instead of reaping benefit for the organization, the new system is causing hindrance in the productivity to a large extent and there have been complaints from every sector of the business, and also gave rise to the dissatisfaction among various section of the employee. The purchasing department of the organization was highly dissatisfied with the process. According to the words of the purchase manager, an increase in cost emerged after the new system was implemented in the organization.... izations spend a huge amount of money towards the protection of the inventory and its maintenance, and also suffers a threat from the loss, if the inventories are not used due to economic fluctuations or due to the change in taste and preference of the customers. But Leagile manufacturing’s main problem arose with the start of the ordering for the material when on need. The costs associated with the purchase orders are significant and the overall cost of the purchase orders increased to a large extent as frequent orders were placed for the purchase of materials. Apart from the problem of the rise in cost of the purchase, the organization faced a significant problem with that of the frequent change in schedule for the order. As the stock of the inventory was calculated on a regular basis, so the schedule of orders were also changed accordingly and caused significant amount of trouble. However the problem associated with the process of production can be identified in the failure of the organization in determining the right amount of the inventory required for the production. If the process of the identification of the right amount of product would have been done in a proper way, then the case of shortage of material in the process of production would not have occurred and the production people would not have asked for the next day delivery of the material for the change in the schedule. As a result of the failure to deliver the right amount of raw material in time, the overall production process was hampered and even caused a lag in the production. The Just in Time incorporated in the organization was successful in reducing the inventory cost but the associated cost increased the overall cost of the production. The incorporation of the just in Time technology also

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Urban economics homework - Assignment Example b) Utilities are a typical household expense that can drive a person’s monthly expenses up or down, depending on the season. Therefore, it is not possible that all the 50 residents can have the same level of utility. c) Capitalization causes the equilibrium, and the price per unit housing may differ following the fact that, equilibrium between the two jurisdictions, and poor households are the majority in the inner parts of an urban area where they vote for a low public service level. At the same time in the suburbs, the majority households are rich and they vote high public service. However, the commuting cost, land prices, and income can adjust making both case of households indifferent between jurisdictions. a) In respect to the household wealth complements, people prefer to live in communities with a higher level of public good and higher taxes than others. The economic intuition for this behavior can be attributed to the source and level of income that a households gets on a monthly base or annually. This would differentiate between the two types of household (Balchin, Paul, David Isaac, and Jean). b) As mentioned earlier in case 1 the utility level depends on a season. Again the amount of income comes in where by high income earners utility level is likely to be high compared to that of low income earner. c) The equilibrium level in terms of price per house cannot remain constant. This is because factors such as the commuting cost, land prices, income, environmental conditions, security, house demand and the quality of a those house units keeps on changing. d) It is unlikely that the wage level between the two types of households is the same following the fact that households with above-average income pay high taxes than they get while households with inferior than average income get more than their tax liability. Households with higher incomes demand more of the public good, they are likely to pay high taxes due to rising income if

Knaan - Waving Flag Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Knaan - Waving Flag - Essay Example People have to unite and love each other regardless of race, ethnic background and culture. The artist gives an example using sporting activities because people from different background come and celebrate together. Repetition has been portrayed in various stances right from the start. For instance, â€Å"And then it goes back† has been repeated many times the chorus section of the song. The artist uses a symbol â€Å"Just like a waving flag† as he associates freedom to the waving flag (Metro Lyrics 1). During normal circumstance, the flag has to change directions. It can be deduced that the artist used the flag to symbolize that people can change their fortune within a short period. This means that the situation of both the poor and the rich can easily change. The waving nature of the flag also represents freedom of movement, expression, personality, and uniqueness. Exaggeration has been used in the verse, â€Å"Born to a throne, stronger than Rome† (Metro Lyric s 1). This is because the present generations come from wealthy families, who are also privileged. Imagery has been used in the lines which states that, â€Å"poor people zone, but its my home† (Metro Lyrics 1). The stanza makes the audience imagine of poor people, their homes and clothing. Poor people are always associated with poor living conditions, suffering, and hunger as brought out in the stanza. Theme of fantasy has also been portrayed in the same verse when Knaan refers to his home as a concrete object. An individual would have an emotional feeling after listening to the song (Metro Lyrics 1). It starts with portraying the poor living conditions experienced by Knaan while still in a war-torn nation of Somali and ends with an inspiration of living together regardless of race and ethnic background. Most people would love the song because it is educative. For instance, people would realize that freedom could only be achieved in

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Education - Essay Example Throughout the lesson Lila approaches the teacher to ask for clarification of certain steps of the task. From my classroom observations I notice that Lila has a certain motivation for learning, she is keen to learn and the teacher fosters an environment where Lila feels comfortable. Huitt (1999) claims, dyslexic students require constant repetition in order to learn words and sentence structure. Lila has demonstrated a skill in memorising words and facts rather than understanding or sounding out words. This was apparent when the teacher asked Lila to repeat the sights words and he repeated them without looking at them and in the order they were written on the board, obviously she has memorized them in order to do this. However, Lila tends to lose concentration easily as well; even though she is motivated in the task she tends to lose concentration and give up after attempting the task a few times. Her failed attempt at the task overrides her curiosity to learn. Lila enjoys creative a rts lessons where she is able to explore her creative ability, especially music lessons which unfortunately the teacher finds difficult to incorporate on a regular basis. However, the teacher allows Lila to play independently on a keyboard, on a regular basis, in order to keep her motivated and passionate throughout the year. During visual arts lessons Lila creates artwork with lots of patterns and similarities, for example during a lesson where students were learning about patterns, the teacher had Lila paint the patterns in order to demonstrate her understanding, and he created amazing pieces of work which demonstrates understanding beyond the Stage 1 level. Due to Lila’s dyslexia he is reading at an early stage 1 level and requires help with tasks that involve a large amount of reading. The teacher modifies tasks for Lila in order to ensure she builds upon her existing skills rather than providing work beyond her understanding. For instance: during a lesson on writing info rmation reports the teacher had a sample information report printed on paper, cut out and jumbled up. Instead of writing Lila was expected to identify the features of an information report and put the sentences in an appropriate order. After which Lila glued the sentences in her English workbook. During this task Lila demanded less attention than normal from the teacher, as she wasn’t struggling to write, rather she was aiming to learn and understand. This is a great activity as it takes Lila’s mind away from writing and allows her to concentrate on putting the sentences in chronological order. Huitt (1999) believes that repetition is the key to dyslexic students suffering from sequence problems. Lila is very vocal and assertive at times in the classroom. She prefers to work independently as she feels that her peers thinking are not of her liking. During group work Lila raises her voice and quarrels with her peers on the logistics of the task, she feels that her way is superior and expects her peers to follow. At times Lila’s creativity and intellectual abilities are beyond the task, therefore she find group work boring and irrelevant during these times. There are also instances where Lila is not concerned with

The Best Thing in Life is Free

The Best Thing in Life is Free Essay No one can deny that the Internet is the most helpful invention in the past centuries. Thanks to the Internet, people’s lives have never been more convenient, easy and worth living. But some people want to limit what the Internet can show us. In my opinion, an open, free Internet is better than a more regulated one because it gives us more freedom, free and huge source of study materials and big entertainment choices unlike the one people want to limit. An open Internet gives us not only the freedom of being whoever we want to be, but also the freedom to express ourselves without limitations. For example, social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, Myspace offer people the chance to freely express their opinions without being judged. Unlike the regulated Internet, people have to watch out for what they’re saying about political ideas or about some other people. Moreover, another option the free Internet gives people who want to show their emotions and thinking is blogging. â€Å"Blogs can give readers a clearer idea of what is happening than official newspaper or TV channels can, even in countries where the media are free.† (How Blogging Changed My Life, Ayesha Saldahna, p52). Blogs helped people socialize with the new places or new people. Also, â€Å"I enjoy blogging because it gives me opportunities to exchange ideas with people all around the world.† (How Blogging Changed My Life, Ayesha Saldahna, p53). Clearly, the free Internet has offered people the freedom to be themselves and express their feelings in any way they want without any limitations like the regulated Internet. Another helpful thing a free and open Internet offers us is a huge source of study materials. Instead of buying expensive books and waiting in lines at the library, we now can look up the information we need anywhere anytime through the Internet. For example, I have to do a research papers for my finals. But instead of wasting my time going everywhere to find the information I want, I just need to turn on my laptop and search for any information related to my topic. Unlike the regulated Internet, the free and open Internet offers a huge source of information. So all that is left to do is choose which information is the best for my paper. Moreover, with the money I can save from not buying books, I can help myself with other school supplies. Therefore, free Internet is very helpful, time-efficient and of course, generally free. Lastly, with the invention of the Internet, people can enjoy any kind of entertainment at home. Before the Internet was invented, the only way people could entertain themselves was going out for activities or paying a lot of money on movie tickets, the zoo and concert tickets. Moreover, the long lines and sold-old tickets somehow limited the number of people who can actually get entertained. But since the Internet was born, we can watch movies, football and basketball games and the concerts at home. As time goes by, more and more Internet related home theater devices appeared and gave people more choices to enjoy their lives in the easiest and most convenient way. In conclusion, we can have a better life thanks to the Internet. But some people wanted to limit the features of the free Internet because they think it’s too dangerous. I disagree and I think an open and free Internet is better than a more regulated one. It has been helping us a lot and I want our future generations still can be able to use it in a freely way.

Sale of Goods Act 1979 Summary

Sale of Goods Act 1979 Summary INTRODUCTION The Sale of Goods Act 1979, is the law that protects consumers. The purpose of this Act is that it requires goods to be as described, of acceptable standards and fit for purpose, for their essential use. All goods that a sold, must match that of the sample shown in that of brochures, stores or showrooms. It is only not required to be acceptable quality if the consumer noticed any deformity or issue with the product before he/she made a purchase. So if the consumer was to analyse the merchandise, but neglected the opportunity to examine for any faults, and that they were not of acceptable quality; the absence of value would have been evident on a sensible examination of the product(s), the consumer will not have the capacity to contend that the products were not of a sufficient value. Section 12 the Act On the 1st of October 2015, the Consumer Rights Act enforced to supplant the Sale of Goods Act 1979. Any consumer who made a faulty product(s) purchase prior to this Act coming into action, can still make a claim under the Sales of Goods Act 1979. The Consumer Rights Acts has made significant amendments to the consumers rights to return any faulty products purchased and the right to return, repair or request a replacement on faulty purchases, as well as giving the right when buying any digital merchandise.[1] S.12 of the Sales of Goods Act states that, In a contract of sale, there is an implied term on the part of the seller that in the case of a sale he has a right to sell the goods, and in the case an agreement to sell he will have such a right at the time when the property is to pass.[2] What this quote is implying is that the vendor is not required to be the legitimate proprietor of the products, as long as he has the specialty to offer the service, as he has the right to sell and not the modification of the product. Under the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, S.12 cannot be subject to an exclusion clause comparable to the other implied terms that can. S6 (1a) obligation for rupture of the commitments emerging under S.12 cant be avoided or confined by reference to any agreement term, subject to the agreements excepted in that Act. As under S.12 (5A), it affirms that the commitment under S.12 is a legally binding condition, and the lawful premise of which is that there has been a cumulative dissatisfaction of thought or, all the more particularly, as the supplier did not have the right to sell. In Rowland v Divall, even if the seller had the right to/not to sell at the time the contract was made, it may still contain an implied or express term that will require the seller at the time of the contract to have the right to sell, as demonstrated in the case of Barber v NWS Bank Ltd [1996]. Unlike the other implied terms, in Rowland v Divall; a breach of S.12 and S.11 doesnt have an application and the consumer doesnt lose the right to reject the goods by accepting them. The reason being, it is viewed as a complete failure of not taking into account of any thoughts. It is only acceptable and right that a person shouldnt have a right to sell. The Court of Appeal concluded that there has been a failure of consideration. LJ Scrutton discarded the vendors protest, so far as it identified with dismissal as contradict to rescission ab initio, by declaring that it scarcely lay in the dealers mouth, to grumble of the purchasers powerlessness to give back the merchandise, when this very breach originated from the vendors breach of S.12(1).[3] The claimant had anticipated proprietorship, not usage. The four months usage was viewed as unessential and wasnt taken into consideration during this time. S.12(1) may be interpreted as implying that the vendor must have the ability to give responsibility for products to the purchaser, yet in the event that the merchandise must be sold by encroaching an exchange stamp, the dealer has no privilege to offer for the reasons for S.12(1). In Niblett v Confectioners Materials Co Ltd, the seller had no right to sell the goods that they owned as it infringed on Nestles trademark. It was held that they had no right to sell the goods, even though they had the absolute legal interests in the goods. An agent doesnt own the product, however, derives associate authority or right to sell. Possession could also be loaded down by third party rights, by any means of opposing a right to sell. As established in the case of J Barry Winsor Associates Ltd v Belgo Canadian Manufacturing Co Ltd to necessarily have to be that they may or may not have a legal interest in that of the goods they are selling. It is infringed if the seller doesnt have the right to sell, at the time the property passed. So there wouldnt be a breach of S12. Basically, this would seem to face the privilege to the broad free utilisation of the merchandise without the purchaser making recompense for the frequently broad use he has gotten, regardless of such instituting thoughts inside most acknowledged definitions. The Law Reform Act 1943 S.1(3), empowers a gathering to recuperate a sum for a valuable benefit presented before release as a special case to the full recuperation standard, and there would appear to be a further irregularity with different arrangements of the Sale of Goods Act.[4] While there have been talks on improving the regulation, it is said that it is hard to change the law since evaluating the purchasers advantage through ownership would be troublesome and questionable. Diminishing any claims will add up to the purchaser paying the merchant for utilisation of another persons products. The Law Reform Committee contended that a remittance ought to be made for use by the pure purchaser in such circumstances. CONCLUSION S.12 of the Act demonstrates the connection between the purchaser and dealer and covers issues, such as the right and obligations and the genuine accentuation ought to be centred on the injustice of the consumer having the pleasure to use products, with the handy ramifications being that they acquire full compensation in case of a breach. This has proven to be more difficult for a consumer to prove their case, especially if the product has been in their possession for a long period of time. BIBILIOGRAPHY Genie T, Consumer Law In A Nutshell (Consumer Genie, 2017) accessed 26 February 2017 Poole J, Casebook On Contract Law (1st edn, Oxford Univ Press 2016) Bridge M, The Sale Of Goods (1st edn, Oxford University Press 1998) Collins D, Rowland V. Divall: Logical Fallacy? The Courts Interpretation Of Consumer Protection Is Both Confusing And Unfair (2014) 158 Solicitors Journal accessed 5 March 2017 Atiyah P, Adams J and MacQueen H, Atiyahs Sale Of Goods (12th edn, Longman 2010) Rowland V Divall (2017) accessed 5 March 2017 [1] The Genie, Consumer Law In A Nutshell (Consumer Genie, 2017) accessed 26 February 2017. [2] Jill Poole, Casebook On Contract Law (1st edn, Oxford Univ Press 2016). [3] Michael Bridge, The Sale Of Goods (1st edn, Oxford University Press 1998). [4] Daniel M Collins, Rowland V. Divall: Logical Fallacy? The Courts Interpretation Of Consumer Protection Is Both Confusing And Unfair (2014) 158 Solicitors Journal accessed 5 March 2017.

Nigerian Towards Foreign And Local Clothing Marketing Essay

Nigerian Towards Foreign And Local Clothing Marketing Essay CHAPTER FOUR CASE ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter will give and comprehensively analyse the project report title The Nigerian consumer attitudes towards foreign and locally made clothing. The relevant marketing framework which was discussed in chapter 3, with regards to the secondary data will be used. This includes reports, book, journals and articles written by experts. However, this secondary data will be used to accomplish the research objectives. The secondary sources which was used in chapter 3 consist of what experts has said about consumer behaviour, motivation, attitudes and the different aspects of   their behaviour when purchasing products, in terms of their country of origin , and how it result into buying behaviour.   Furthermore, we are going to look at the current situation of the Nigeria perception toward country of origin products and how it influence country of origin measurement. The second aspect of this chapter will be dealing with the research instrument as questionnaire and primary research which will be to find out, if consumers have preference for foreign made clothes when compare to locally made once. Thus, the methodology will indicate the research objectives of the project and it also going to clarify data collection process, research hypothesis, respondent sampling and the limitation of the study. The recover data will be examine using the statistical software SPSS followed by a thorough discussion of the findings. 4.2 NIGERIA PERCEPTION TOWARDS COUNTRY OF ORIGIN CLOTHING PRODUCTS   Due to recent studies which have been carried out, Nigeria consumer   knowledge as been observed to have changes, consumer now prefer to purchase foreign made clothes rather than   Nigerian locally made once this is as a result of the way country of origin different products have being manufactured. Furthermore, it was also to be clarified whether customer also prefer some certain product due to the states of the economic development of a country. For examples in the Nigeria at present, consumer dont really patronize the locally made clothes only during local events such as marriages and traditional ceremonies. However, the foreign made products are always highly valued by Nigerian consumers due to exotic fashion trends always derived from the products. According to Knight (1999) explain that in his writing that Nigerian consumer judge foreign products with high estimation due to the facts that they are products manufacture in other countries and he also went further to clarify that country of origin stage of industrial increase, the price of manufactured products and perceived the quality are numbers of reason for different consumer choice to choose between local and foreign products. Toyne (1989) also went further to explain in detail that due to certain products in developed countries, foreign consumer trends are preferred to those kind of products due to their level of advancement  Ã‚   of technology and   It has been originate that consumers in less developed countries assess locally made goods as inferior Al-Salacity (1998).   Due to different research that has been carried out relating to country of origin, it is however been analyzed that these studies has a universal nature. According to leonidou et al (1999) also clarified that there have been some related studies different carried out in some specific advance countries to assess country of origin effect on consumer evaluation of goods from diverse countries and computation patterns. It was also clarified by Han (1989) that consumer use country of origin information to evaluate products. 4.3 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN MEASUREMENT This has been analyzed as the measuring of different countries products in other for consumer to know the growth and development of various countries products. Furthermore, in other for country of origin measurement is establish   and   there are three main approaches which will be evaluated and they consist of single cue studies, multi cue studies and conjoint(trade off) analysis . 4.3.1 SINGLE CUE STUDIES According to   Bilkey Nes (1982) stated that most studies carried out are directed towards consumer being able to make analysis of the products based on merely country name. The author also went further in criticising single cue studies by clarifying that since they were bound to result in a significant origin effect on buying behaviour that might or not exist in the world. Thus, it  Ã‚   observes that single cue studies afford no insights as to how the consumers combine country of origin information with other information such as brand name. Majority of the Nigeria consumer use this single cue to evaluate products especially to check different country of origin designer brands before making purchase. From research show by Kaynak et al (2002) recently analyses that respondents evaluate product based on extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Examples are taste, price, service, design, durability and brand name. Majority of consumer have used single cue studies to analyze products evaluation, especially when they have small information about the brands in other to find out more information. 4.3.2 MULTI-CUE STUDIES According to Ahmed et al (2002) established the fact that due to recent multi cue studies, this study now comprise of different intrinsic and extrinsic information cue other than the country of origin   cue in moderating the country of origin effect. Bilkey Nes (1982) also went further to establish the fact that showed either no significant or only minor effects due to country image. Test which was carried out on using multi cue setting   Ã‚  to test multi products indicated that country of origin is very necessary when evaluating product quality respective of the prices Wall et al (1991). 4.3.3 CONJOINT (TRADE OFF) ANALYSES Since 1970 conjoint (trade off) analysis has been established and it can be define as   the representation   to understand the algebra of a concept or, more specifically how the components of a concept interacted to drive a rating such as to purchase intent (Johnson 1974 cited in Howard et al 2005). The initial application of conjoint analysis used off trade and off trade makes sense when viewed against the background. Examples colour, time factors, availability, and speed of reaction and together with additional factor that may be use to add value augmented part of the products.     Additionally, it has been clarified that conjoint analysis take this principles and applies it in situation where there are more than one set of product choices. There will also be wider ranges of choice in prices than just high or low (Lan 2006: p. 187). 4.4 METHODOLOGY 4.4.1RESEARCH HYPOTHESES. H0: Nigeria consumer purchase foreign made clothes due to status perceptions. H1: Nigeria consumers do not purchase foreign made clothes due to status perceptions. H0: For Nigerian consumers, checking the country of origin is dependent on what prompts their purchase of clothes H2: For Nigerian consumers, checking the country of origin is not dependent on what prompts their purchase of clothes 4.4.2 RESEARCH APPROACHES The research use for this project is called deductive research; the reason for this was that the research project encompasses consumer behaviour attitudes and hypotheses which will be experimented to discover if both results will be both identical or not. The deductive research helps the researcher to experiment the hypotheses in different stages in other to get the actual result of the hypotheses. Examples the Nigerian preference for foreign clothes as well as consumer behaviour. According to Len (2007) justify that deductive begin with theory from which we may derive hypotheses. Which are than tested through observation. Furthermore, it was also clarify that the research is descriptive as it establish the fundamental relationship between variables (mark et al 2000). 4.4.3 RESPONDENT SAMPLING A sample can be defined as a representative of the population which is carefully chosen to represent the whole population (Fink1995). The method of sample use for this survey was judgmental sampling which Mcdaniel (2004) defined as a form of convenient sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher. This was because it was convenient for the researcher to find respondents based on the judgment of where to find a large size of Nigerian male user of foreign and locally made clothing of various ages segment and who were willing to fill the questionnaire. The respondents sample size for this project was 150 and the target group was between the ages of 18-51 years Nigerian males this is because when a large sample size increases, each unit of information is obtained at greater cost (Mcdaniel2004). There are two types of sampling techniques that can be utilize in sampling methods and they includes, probability sampling and non- probability sampling. Probability sampling can be analysis as a chance or probability of each case being selected from the population is known and is usually equal for all cases. Non-probability samples are other than quota sampling is more frequently used for the case study research (Mark et al 2000:p. 152). 4. 5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD 4.5.1 PRIMARY DATA PROCESS The primary data use for this research work was questionnaires this was to enable the researcher gain a standardized insight of country of origin preference, consumer attitude and different question were develop in other to understand consumer preference. Furthermore, this questionnaire comprises of 25question in three different areas. The first section encompasses demographical data which give an insight of respondents background, the second aspect was dealing with purchase preferences between foreign and locally made clothes and the third part was dealing with the consumer attitude towards various country of origin. Thus, the questionnaire are rated in different format the rating scale question are involves were by consumer are able to rate their different choice of brand preference, ranking was also used in the questionnaire to find out their order of important when buying clothes and finally multiple question was also giving with only one box to tick. The total numbers of questionnaire administered were   150 and its was distributed to only   Nigeria males in united kingdom to enable the researcher understand their preference for foreign and locally made clothes and it has been analysis that united kingdom has a large population of males that was while this research is specifying only Nigerian males 4.5.2 DISTRIBUTION PROCESS As stated above the questionnaire were 150 and they are administer in different location of United Kingdom, some of this questionnaire where giving to respondent in London a populate place called Peckham which most Nigerian population reside. Furthermore some of the questionnaires were distributed  Ã‚   to Nigerian male in Birmingham University; some were also distributed to Nigerians in Leicester and redeemed Christian church of God. Finally some of the questionnaires were also distributed through email to the Nigeria male consumer in United Kingdom. Furthermore, questionnaire were distributed to 7 respondents for pilot testing but majority of the respondents had problems in filling out the questionnaire because there were some errors   , examples includes question 6 were not stated how much they earn per annum   and also question 9 did not   give respondents the opportunity to choose their preference. Furthermore, the section two there were no rating scale question to enable respondents rate their order of preference and grammatical errors was also found. After taking the piloted questionnaire from respondent more question were integrated   Ã‚  to explore different country of origin and some were removed.   4.5.3 SECONDARY DATA Secondary data was unitizes in this project this was to enable the researcher gain an understanding about what the project is about and also to construct a strong basis which was used for the research work. According to Lewis   et al (2007) explain secondary data as resources which are easily accessible by researcher in other to understand what the topic and also obtain vital information that will be used during the course of their research work. Examples of this secondary data includes marketing report, database, scholars reviewed, articles and consumer behaviour text books were used to get an insight about consumer attitudes and different country of origin. McGivern(2006) also specified that secondary data sources analyses the formulation   of the hypotheses   and the interpretation of primary data. 4.5.4 SAMPLING STRATEGY The sampling strategy used for this research work is non-probability the reason was that it provide a range of alternative techniques based on your subjective judgement. Thus, according  Ã‚   Mark et al (2000) clarified that it provide sensible alternative to select cases to answer research questions and address the question. In pilot survey, non- probability samples may be the most practical, although it will not allow the extent of the problem to be determined. 4.5.5 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS The main limitation of this research where gathering data from only Nigeria male it was not easy due to the fact that majority of the student   were on vacation and some of them are   busy with their jobs. Another limitation of this study was the issues of travelling to London and Birmingham on different occasion to distribute the questionnaires on getting there, some of the respondents were so busy that they could not fill the questionnaires. It was also observed that some of the Nigerian respondents at London felt reluctant in filling the questionnaires due to the reason being that there were not educated. Furthermore, most of the questionnaires distributed online were not filled out by the target respondents and this gave limited information gathering. Nevertheless, information gathered seems to be biased, because some of the questions were not structured well to get good answers. Conclusively, Information gathered may be prone to inaccuracy, due to lack of access to some of the respondents at the Redeemed Christian church of God. REFERENCE Al-Sulaiti, K. I. and Baker, M. J. (1998) Country of Origin Effects: A Literature Review: Marketing Intelligence & Planning 16. Bilkey, W. and Nes, E. (1982) Country of Origin Effects on Product Evaluations: Journal of International Business Studies 13. Fink, A. (1995) The Survey Handbook, 1st Edition: California, Saga Publication Inc. Howard .R. Moskowitz, Matthias Sicher, Sebastiano Porretta (2005) Concept Research In Food Product Design and Development: First Edition, United States: Wiley, John Sons Han, C. Min (1989), Country Image: Halo or Summary Construct? Journal of Marketing Research 29-222. Knight, G. A. (1999) Consumer Preferences Foreign and Domestic Products, Journal of Marketing Vol 16,(2)151-162 Kaynak, E. and Kara, A. (2002) Consumer Perceptions of Foreign Products: An Analysis of Product-Country Images and Ethnocentrism, European Journal of Marketing 36. Lewis .P., Thornhill. A.   and Saunders .M. (2009) Research Methods for Business Student, Fourth Edition: Harlow, Financial Time Prentice Hall.   Lan Ruskin-Brown(2006) Mastering Marketing: A Comprehensive Introduction to the Skill of   Developing and Defending your Companys Revenue, Second Edition: Thorogood, United States. Len Sandler (2007) Becoming an Extraordinary Manager: The Five Essential for Success, First Edition, United States. Mcdaniel .C. Roger.G.(2004) Marketing Research Essentials, Fourth Edition: United Stated, John Wiley and Sons,Inc. Mcgivern, Y. (2006) The Practice of Market and Social Research: An Introduction. 2nd edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall Mark .S., Philip. L. and Adrian Thornhill(2000) Research Methods For Business Students, Second Edition: United Kingdom, Pearson Education Limited. Toyne, B. and Walters, P. G. P. (1989) Global Marketing Management: A Strategic Perspective. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Militarism Caused WWII Essay -- World War II WWII WW2

Militarism On Sunday June 28, 1914, a member of the terrorist group The Black Hand, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Many historians say that this event was the cause of World War I. There is also a theory that the assassination of the Archduke was only a trigger and that the war itself was caused by numerous other historical events and developments including imperialism, militarism, and alliances. Militarism was the leading factor in the outbreak of war. Militarism is the philosophy that a country’s significance is shown through its military might. Such a violent ideal promotes a unnecessarily strong military force and an aggressive demeanor while negotiating national interests. Without it the World War I would not happen on such a grand scale, if it would have happened at all. Militarism has always been present in countries around the world, but it had never become such a major force until the new Kaiser of Germany, William II, rose to power. He grew up as a cadet in Potsdam and it was there that he acquired a fondness for military pomp. While receiving his education, instead of insight and wisdom, it filled him with bigoted and absurdly romantic notions of war (Schulezed et al 69). Although Bismark, the previous prime minister, dismissed the new youthful Kaiser, he was forced out of power, marking the turning point of when German militarism moved to a forefront and became the ideal of the nation, and all rational calculations were put on the back burner (Schulezed et al 70). When Germany began to build its army, there was no going back. The Social Democratic Party, the main political party at the time, was unsuccessful in opposing naval growth because military provided the working class with tens of thousands o... ...l in times of peace. He argued that military elites had too much power in European countries and World War I was a consequence of their desire for the military power and disdain of democracy. He supported the removal of rulers such as Wilhelm II, an end to aristocracy, and militarism in any shape or form. Unfortunately his ideas were implemented only after the world suffered through the second World War when history had repeated itself without anyone learning their lesson. Bibliography â€Å"Naval Rivalry.† Europe. 3rd ed. 5 vols. Beresford, Charles W., Volker R. Berghahn, Herwig H. Holger, Lambert A. Nicholas, Arthur J. Marder, Jon T. Sumida, and Lawrence Sondhaus. Farmington Hills: Tomson Gale, 2006 Schulze, Hagen. German - A New History. Massachusette: Harvard University Press, 1998. Stratachn, Hew. The First World War. New York: Penguin Group, 2004

Proposal College for Free :: Education School University Tuition Essays Papers

Proposal College for Free Dear Governor Bush: The demands of the workplace today are leaning toward a more educated employee. Many businesses are looking for degree holding, college graduates. Making it a must for today's youth to attend college to be in the running for a decent job. But to many students today, college is out of the question, solely due to the high tuition costs. Many high school graduates are forced to directly start a full-time job, because the money isn't there for college. The 1999 National Survey of Americas Families found that Florida is well below the national average on many economic levels. The Survey found that Florida has a large amount of children in families that experience worries about or difficulties affording food, children with no health insurance, nonelderly adults with no health insurance, and children with no usual source of health care. According to the Urban Institute, the median income for a family with children is $33,250, with 25.9% of Florida?s population having an economic level below poverty. The Chronicle of Higher Education estimated the average cost for a four-year public college tuition at $3,510 for an academic year. This does not include books, room and board, and transportation. Books and supplies estimated cost is $704, and room and board costs $4,960 for residents and $2,444 for commuters. In total, The Chronicle estimated the costs of an academic year at $11, 338 for a resident on campus, for a commuter the estimate is $9,229. If Florida families cannot afford health care let alone food, how can they afford to attend college? My proposal is to abolish the costs of tuition and books. A college education is essential in today?s society to obtain a well-paying job. For many families living in Florida, sending a child to college is virtually impossible. This leaves the child at a dead end, forcing him or her to work-full time with only a high school diploma at hand. The costs of college should be paid for by the government; in turn getting the money from taxpayers. I think taxes should be slightly raised in order for everyone to get a fair chance at an education. I don?t think many citizens of Florida would have much of a problem with their child getting a college education for free. Proposal College for Free :: Education School University Tuition Essays Papers Proposal College for Free Dear Governor Bush: The demands of the workplace today are leaning toward a more educated employee. Many businesses are looking for degree holding, college graduates. Making it a must for today's youth to attend college to be in the running for a decent job. But to many students today, college is out of the question, solely due to the high tuition costs. Many high school graduates are forced to directly start a full-time job, because the money isn't there for college. The 1999 National Survey of Americas Families found that Florida is well below the national average on many economic levels. The Survey found that Florida has a large amount of children in families that experience worries about or difficulties affording food, children with no health insurance, nonelderly adults with no health insurance, and children with no usual source of health care. According to the Urban Institute, the median income for a family with children is $33,250, with 25.9% of Florida?s population having an economic level below poverty. The Chronicle of Higher Education estimated the average cost for a four-year public college tuition at $3,510 for an academic year. This does not include books, room and board, and transportation. Books and supplies estimated cost is $704, and room and board costs $4,960 for residents and $2,444 for commuters. In total, The Chronicle estimated the costs of an academic year at $11, 338 for a resident on campus, for a commuter the estimate is $9,229. If Florida families cannot afford health care let alone food, how can they afford to attend college? My proposal is to abolish the costs of tuition and books. A college education is essential in today?s society to obtain a well-paying job. For many families living in Florida, sending a child to college is virtually impossible. This leaves the child at a dead end, forcing him or her to work-full time with only a high school diploma at hand. The costs of college should be paid for by the government; in turn getting the money from taxpayers. I think taxes should be slightly raised in order for everyone to get a fair chance at an education. I don?t think many citizens of Florida would have much of a problem with their child getting a college education for free.

True Lies in Brice’s Ways with Words Essay example -- Ways with Words

True Lies in Brice’s Ways with Words  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Ways with Words by Shirley Brice Heath we read about the author’s ethnographic study in the South during desegregation. The purpose of Heath’s study is to examine the ways people from different communities in the textile region raise their children. The way the children are raised according to Heath, affects the language development and the way these children learn to read and write in the school setting. In my paper I want to examine the way the church relates to the cultural differences in Roadville and Trackton. Cultural differences have ultimately created two separate learning styles. Reading Heath’s study creates curiosity as to how one book, the Bible, can be translated by two cultures in such differing ways that, â€Å"In short, for Roadville, Trackton’s stories would be lies; for Trackton, Roadville stories would not even count as stories† (Heath, 189). Heath says, â€Å"For both Roadville and Trackton, the church is a key institution helping to provide occasion and rationale for their approaches to being parents and to enabling their young to use language† (147). Both groups engage in regular religious activity, the Trackton people meeting every other week for group services, and the Roadville groups meeting at church on Sundays. Both groups meet in mixed age group settings, as well. And both groups believe the Bible is the Word of God. Yet differences exist. Trackton groups do not necessarily meet in a building. â€Å"Preachers, men of music, and the best playsong performers claim they cannot stick to written text. Seemingly thoughts which were once shaped into words on paper become recomposed in each time and space.† (233) Trackton preachers and song leaders feel stifled by the wr... ...ducation makes them unskilled at helping their children do well in school. Heath studied their struggles and identified significant ways to teach these children. As the study closes, we realize that to improve the education of the Roadville and Trackton communities, we would need to change the home environment, the religious traditions, and the culture of the communities to match that of the townspeople. To change the school to meet the needs of the students would not create a long lasting improvement. I for one find difficulty in judging one community as being better than another since each has its own value. Homogeneity seems to be an evil, but one that education in America both supports and at times seems to demand. Perhaps someday we will find a solution. Work Cited: Heath, Shirley Brice. Ways with Words. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Expectations Charles Dickens Essay

In the first chapter of Great Expectations Charles Dickens creates a very intense image of the marshes. This is the first place he describes and he makes the marshes sound like a very creepy and bewildering place.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Ours was the marsh country, down by the river, within, as the river wound, twenty miles of the sea†.  The words marsh and the river makes the marshes sound like a very damp, muddy and bleak place.  Also in the first chapter Charles Dickens describes the churchyard as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Bleak place overgrown with nettles†. Dickens also describes the churchyard s a very † Overgrown and bleak place†.  A graveyard is supposed to be a happy place that revitalises and refreshes kind, happy memories. I think this implies that death is all around no matter where you look. I think this because everything is â€Å"overgrown† and not looked after and the â€Å"nettles† are killing all of the beautiful plants so death is also involved there as well.  Dickens also says about the marshes in the first chapter  Ã¢â‚¬  And that the dark flat wilderness beyond the churchyard, intersected with dykes and mounds and gates, with scattered cattle feeding on it, was the marshes: and that the low leaden line beyond was the river: and the distant savage liar from which the wind was rushing was the sea†. This quote represents a dark and unforgiving future for Pip and that there is no one out there in the wilderness to care for him. The words â€Å"leaden line† imply a low lead river that looks like it has bars on and to Pip this makes him feel imprisoned. Also the words â€Å"savage liar† represents to Pip that he thinks that there is like a savage monster out there in the sea. Furthermore in chapter one Dickens explains the marshes as a â€Å"long black, horizontal line and the sky was just a row of long, angry red lines and dense black lines intermixed. The words represent anger and danger and black utility, death and emptiness. Pip again feels like he is a prisoner to the marshes. At the start of the first chapter instead of Pip being one of the main characters he becomes the narrator of the story and starts talking about his family.  Ã¢â‚¬  So I called myself Pip, and came to be called Pip†.  When Pip goes to the churchyard to the graveyard to look at their graves and imagines what his family would of looked like this proves he has a very distinct and creative imagination.  Ã¢â‚¬  My first fancies regarding what they were like, were unreasonably derived from their tombstones†.  Also Pip proves that there was a high rate of infant mortality and he also proves that there was a universal struggle to die. † To five little stone lozenges, each about a foot and a half long, which were arranged in a neat row beside their grave, and were scared to the memory of five little brothers of mine who gave up trying to get a living exceedingly early in that universal struggle†.  Dickens in the first chapter changes from first person the narrator to third person and this s a very unnatural method to use.  Ã¢â‚¬  And that the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry, was Pip†. Also Great Expectations was serialised which means that he novel was brought out in chapters and because the novel was successful people kept buying each chapter each time they were released.  When Pip goes into the churchyard to the graveyard so that he can go and visualise his brothers and his parents he meets a convict. The convict is starving and looking for food and basically anything and so he turns Pip upside town.  Ã¢â‚¬  The man after looking at me for a moment turned me upside-down†.  This is very strong and imaginative and you can clearly imagine it as he turns him upside down literally and metaphorically. After this the convict starts talking to Pip about his appearance. He talks about  Ã¢â‚¬Å"What fat cheeks you ha got:†Ã‚  After this Pip says  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and not strong†.  This gives the impression that Pip has never been fed properly and this make Pip sound innocent and vulnerable.  Later on Pip makes a promise to the convict that he would bring some food and some wittles so that the convict could release himself from the chain around his ankles and the convict threatens Pip to make sure he does this.

Medea Claim Essay

Made by Euripides, Jason is the antagonist of the story. His treatment of his ex-wife Made causes the tragedy of the story. As the plot line unfolds, we begin to connect Media's irrational actions with the way she is treated by Jason. Jason chose a new bride and abandoned Made, along with his two sons. The tutor said, â€Å"The father does not love his sons, but -his new wedding bed†(Euripides 16). Made isn't the only character realizing thatJason has completely forgotten about his family for his new wife. Season's actions were due to his selfish and self-centered attitude. Made lost all mental stability after she was left by the man she thought was the love of her life. Made says on her betrayal, â€Å"Woman, on the whole, is a timid thing: [ †¦ L but, wronged in love,there is no heart more murderous†(Euripides 31 This betrayal has unleashed a rage in her, that was never seen before. In attempt to frustrate Made, Jason refuses to let her bring their children with her when she is exiled.He fails to think about the repercussions of his actions, and jumps to blame everyone but himself. Media's life would be far from a tragedy if it weren't for Season's actions. As any woman would, Made seeks revenge on Season's repulsive actions. She says, â€Å"Now can unfold to you [Chorus] my whole design: there is nothing sweet in it, as you will SE' (Euripides 137). Jason definitely is to blame for the tragedy due to his treatment of Made.

The Differences Between Internal And External Auditors Accounting Essay

The statue of internal and external hearers in company is different. Internal hearer is integrated to the trade company or an external specialised company or in other words is an employee to the company. However external hearer merely integrated to external specialised company and is an independent individual. Besides, internal and external hearer besides differs in end and auditing process. For internal hearer, they monitor the direction and cheque of the legal conformity of the fiscal statement. They besides make appropriate recommendation for the betterment administration procedure. For external hearer, they identify and certify the fiscal statement. Besides, they besides evaluate the internal control system but this is merely valid for fiscal accounting elements. Next, the range of the audit is different every bit good. The range of internal hearer is big which can cover the whole company ‘s map. But for external hearer, the range is focal points on confirmation the issues that determine the fiscal standing and company ‘s public presentation. Furthermore, the on the job period of audit is besides different. For internal hearer, they can hold lasting activity within the trade companies which is harmonizing to the article of association. For external hearer, the marks are fitfully organized and at suited minutes for the enfranchisement of histories. There is difference between internal and external hearer in term of their independency. Internal hearer is comparatively independence. But in other instance, if the internal auditing is performed by a 3rd company, they have the independency particular to the free-lances. For external hearer, they are independent to its client as representative of a free profession and regulated lawfully and statutory. Furthermore, internal and external hearer besides use different scrutinizing criterion. Internal hearers may follow GAAS criterion and sometimes they may follow IIA criterion or they may non follow any other particular criterion. However, external hearers are required to follow by and large accepted auditing criterions or international auditing criterions, but internal hearers do non. Guidance brand by internal hearer is different with external hearer as good. Internal hearer will give suggestion to the direction for the betterment of concern whereas external hearer does non necessitate to supply suggestion unless he was asked. Besides they besides have different responsibilities. Internal hearer primary responsibility is to happen frauds and mistakes whereas external hearer has to find the concluding histories on whether it was true. If company found any error made by internal hearer, they can be removed by direction. For external hearer, they can be removed by stockholders. Fiscal statements were made by companies. Investors, creditors and bankers can do usage of the company ‘s fiscal statements to do their operating determination. Auditing exists in order to do user trust on these fiscal statement, place the fidelity of fiscal statement, and assist the user make concluding determination. The users can non reexamine and place each history in the fiscal statements by themselves although the users have to depend on the fiscal statements to do their determinations. Users depend on fiscal statements so much. But they would non hold adequate abilities and competency to make so even if they could make so. These fiscal statements are audited by independent and intelligent comptrollers or CPAs. Hearers will sporadically analyze each history in the fiscal statements for the application of users. For illustration, hearers will present a formal mail to the Bankss to look into the balances of hard currency or plus and note collectible or liability history. Besides, they will besides direct a mail to the providers and clients of companies to analyze the balance of histories receivable and histories collectible. In short, hearers are the user ‘s representatives to analyze the fiscal statements of studies. The users can non find whether the fiscal statements are faithful and dependable to show their fiscal place and public presentation if without scrutinizing. Hearers should supply with adequate accounting, and others related cognition. When there are new Torahs and ordinances, they have to accept related preparation and motive. Hearers should hold the character of honest, unsloped, and independent. They can non be influenced by the others in the companies. Besides, hearers besides must hold adequate abilities and competency. There will hold an exam held sporadically to prove whether comptrollers have plenty related cognition. Therefore, we can hold a high criterion of hearers. The cost of scrutinizing depends on the company ‘s net income. The cost of scrutinizing may besides increase if gross revenues incurred in a company turn up continuously and vice-versa. The cost of scrutinizing is high, but we can hold a high criterion and demand for our hearers. Therefore, a company is willing to pay for this dearly-won expertness. We can to the full mention to their sentiments in the fiscal statements because the hearers are trustable and dependable. Mentioning to their sentiments, we can cognize whether companies overstate or understate their plus and liabilities and whether their statements are faithful. With their sentiments, we can make up one's mind whether to depend on these fiscal statements to do our determinations. If the consequences of fiscal statements are trustable, this means the company did non exaggerate or minimize their histories. Therefore, we can utilize its fiscal statements to do our determination. hypertext transfer protocol: //feaa.ucv.ro/AUCSSE/0036v3-027.pdf hypertext transfer protocol: //studypoints.blogspot.com/2011/09/what-is-difference-between-internal_775.html hypertext transfer protocol: //yuhanlo.blogspot.com/2006/01/importance-of-auditing.html

Education in India

Education in India has a history stretching back to the ancient urban centres of learning at Taxila and Nalanda. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the states, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are Union or State Government controlled. India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. [2] India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India. [3] Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private institutions. [4] The private education market in India is estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012. [4] However, India continues to face challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 35% of the population is illiterate and only 15% of the students reach high school. [5] As of 2008, India's post-secondary high schools offer only enough seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree. [6] As of 2007, there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[7] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education. [8] Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the world’s top 200 universities — Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005 and 2006. [9] Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science – Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek. 10] The Indian School of Business situated in Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of London in 2010[11] while the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and treatment. [12]Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Overview 2. 1 Primary education 2. 2 Secondary education 2. 3 Tertiary education 2. 4 Technical education 3 Literacy 4 Attainment 5 Private education 6 Women's Education 7 Rural education 8 Issues 9 Initiatives 10 Central government involvement 10. 1 Budget 10. Public Expenditure on Education in India 10. 3 Legislative framework 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links [edit] History Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru was a favored form of education for the nobility in ancient India. [13] The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. [14] The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. 14] The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the lowest class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages. [14] The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time. [14] Apart from the monastic orders, institutions of higher learning and universities flourished in India well before the common era, and continued to deliver education into the common era. 15] Secular Buddhist institutions cropped up along with monasteries. [14] These institutions imparted practical education, e. g. medicine. [14] A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 200 BCE to 400 CE. [16] The important urban centres of learning were Taxila and Nalanda, among others. [16] These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as logic, grammar, medicine, metaphysics, arts and crafts. [16] By the time of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni (973-1048 CE), India already had a sophisticated system of mathematics and science in place, and had made a number of inventions and discoveries. [17] With the arrival of the British Raj in India a class of Westernized elite was versed in the Western system of education which the British had introduced. [18] This system soon became solidified in India as a number of primary, secondary, and tertiary centres for education cropped up during the colonial era. 18] Between 1867 and 1941 the British increased the percentage of the population in Primary and Secondary Education from around 0. 6% of the population in 1867 to over 3. 5% of the population in 1941. However this was much lower than the equivalent figures for Europe where in 1911 between 8 and 18% of the population were in Primary and Secondary education. [19] Additionally literacy was also improved. In 1901 the literacy rate in India was only about 5% though by Independence it was nearly 20%. [20] Following independence in 1947, Maulana Azad, India's first education minister envisaged strong central government control over education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system. [21] However, given the cultural and linguistic diversity of India, it was only the higher education dealing with science and technology that came under the jurisdiction of the central government. [21] The government also held powers to make national policies for educational development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout India. 22] The central government of India formulated the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986 and also reinforced the Programme of Action (POA) in 1986. [23] The government initiated several measures the launching of DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,[24] India's initiative for Education for All) and setting up of Navodaya Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district, advances in female educ ation, inter-disciplinary research and establishment of open universities. India's NPE also contains the National System of Education, which ensures some uniformity while taking into account regional education needs. The NPE also stresses on higher spending on education, envisaging a budget of more than 6% of the Gross Domestic Product. [23] While the need for wider reform in the primary and secondary sectors is recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the development of science and technology education infrastructure. [edit] Overview The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India. 25] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies. [26] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are: The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) board. The C ouncil for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) board. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) board. International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations. Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband. Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula. In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[27] and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation. 28] [edit] Primary education The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up to the age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education in India. [29]) The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. [29] However, both free education and the ban on child labor are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and so cial conditions. [29] 80% of all recognized schools at the Elementary Stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the Country. 30] However, due to shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor level of teacher training. Education has also been made free[29] for children for six to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. [31] There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system. 32] 85% of the DPEP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states. [32] The DPEP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 a lternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3. 5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes. [32] This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states. [32] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. 32] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low. [edit] Secondary education The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system. [33] Secondary education covers children 14-18 which covers 88. 5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001-02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of school. [34] A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing. 35] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[36] A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education. [25] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[37] Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was start ed for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred. [25] [edit] Tertiary education Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair†¦ In almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters†¦ I am concerned that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and corruption. – Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007[38] Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. [39] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. 40] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission. [41] As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 13 institutes which are of national importance. [40] Other institut ions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. 40] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. [42] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes. [43] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system. [43] Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of education. [43] The IITs enroll about 8000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India. 44] Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupil, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the me nace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Students from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to these institutes and colleges. [45][dead link] [edit] Technical education From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower. [46] India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament. [47] At the level of the centre the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology are deemed of national importance. 47] The Indian Institutes of Management are also among the nation's premier education facilities. [47] Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into National Institutes of Technology. [47] The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e. g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. [48] [edit] Literacy Main article: Literacy in India According to the Census of 2001, â€Å"every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write in any language is said to be literate†. According to this criterion, the 2001 survey holds the National Literacy Rate to be around 64. 84%. [49] Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in urban areas. [49] Female literacy was at a national average of 53. 63% whereas the male literacy was 75. 26%. [49] Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 90. 02% whereas Bihar averaged lower than 50% literacy, the lowest in India. [49] The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of ‘absolute non-literates' in the country was 304 million. 49] [edit] Attainment World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 percent of adolescents in India attend secondary schools. [2] The Economist reports that half of 10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14. [50] Only one in ten young people have access to tertiary education. [2] Out of those who re ceive higher education, Mercer Consulting estimates that only a quarter of graduates are â€Å"employable†. [51] An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever had any sort of vocational training. [52] [edit] Private education According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[30] making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated. [53] According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools. 50][54][55] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation[56] In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama. [53] The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schoo ls (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are female. 57] There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54. 91% in private, compared to 44. 88% in government schools and only 2. 32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to 43. 44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit. [53] Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools. 55] Private schools are often operating illegally. A 2001 study found that it takes 14 different licenses from four different authorities to open a private school in New Delhi and could take years if done legally. [55] However, operation of unrecognized schools has been made illegal under the Ri ght to Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[31] which has also significantly simplified the process of obtaining recognition. [edit] Women's Education Girls in school near Baroda, Gujarat. See also: Women in India Women have much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out. [58] According to a 1998 report by U. S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless)[59] The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2-6% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947. [60] Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15. 3% in 1961 to 28. % in 1981. [60] By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. [61] Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half of its present level. Sita An antha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls’ school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for democracy, and central to the improvement of women’s condition. The new policy aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding girls’ occupational centers and primary education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female dropout rates are high. [62] Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions. 62] [edit] Rural education A primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh. Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for bringing social change through community development. [63] The administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in 1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development Block—an authority under national p rogramme which could control education in up to 100 villages. [63] A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of 150 square miles which could contain a population of as many as 70000 people. [63] Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves divided further into individual-based, community based, or the Individual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and literacy, youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line. [63] Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from private institutions. [64] A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the Gandhigram Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks were established in India. [65] Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for women were set up. [65] The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation. 65] However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains made by rural education institutes of Ind ia. [66] Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little results. [66] Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the Rural Development Foundation (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural schools, but the number of students served is small. [edit] Issues One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 71% in Bihar. Only 1 in nearly 3000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence. [67] A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found that ‘only about half were teaching, during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of government primary schools in India. ‘. [67] Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than problem solving. BusinessWeek denigrates the Indian curriculum saying it revolves around rote learning. [68] and ExpressIndia suggests that students are focused on cramming. [69] A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets. 70] 2003-04 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration revealed that only 3. 5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 12-16%. [71] Fake degre es are a problem. One raid in Bihar found 0. 1 million fake certificates. [72] In February 2009, the University Grant Commission found 19 fake institutions operating in India. [73] Only 16% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in China. [74] [edit] Initiatives Boys seated in school near Baroda, Gujarat. The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna. Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for the backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the central government. [75] An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled Tribes. [75] The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes combined was found to be 22. 5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17 percent and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7. 5 percent. [75] Following the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which literally means â€Å"oppressed†. [75] The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's educational programmes. [76] Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e. g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7. 5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes. [76] Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many schemes and educational facilities in India. [76] The remote and far-flung regions of North East India are provided for under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since 1998-1999. [77] The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote areas. [77] The government objective for the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), started in 2001, is to provide education to children between 6–14 years by 2010. [78] The programme focuses specially on girls and children with challenged social or financial backgrounds. [78] The SSA also aims to provide practical infrastructure and relevant source material in form of free textbooks to children in remote areas. [78] The SSA also aims at widening computer education in rural areas. [78] SSA is currently working with Agastya International Foundation – an educational NGO – to augment its efforts in making science curriculum current and exciting. However, some objectives of the SSA, e. g. enrollment of all children under the scheme in schools by 2005 remain unfulfilled. 78] Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education are components of the SSA. [78] Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnat aka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989. [79] Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels. [79] The government allowed 340 million rupees during 2007–08 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21, 000 villages. [79] Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the National Bal Bhavan. 80] The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children with a marked talent for a particular educational stream. [80] A number of programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation in several international forums. [80] India's minorities, especially the ones considered ‘educationally backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National Policy on Education (NPE). [81] T he government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action (1992). 81] Both these schemes were started nationwide by 1994. [81] In 2004 the Indian parliament allowed an act which enabled minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they passed the required norms. [81] [edit] Central government involvement [edit] Budget As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (2002–2007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of 65. 6% of its total education budget of Rs. 438250 million, or (Rs. 287500 million) on elementary education; 9. 9% (Rs. 43250 million) on secondary education; 2. 9% (Rs. 12500 million) on adult education; 9. 5% (Rs. 41765 million) on higher education; 10. 7% (Rs. 7000 million) on technical education; and the remaining 1. 4% (Rs. 6235 million) on miscellaneous education schem es. [82] According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the world. [83] See also: Education in India Five Year Plan Expenditure [edit] Public Expenditure on Education in India In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years. (e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal. However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been done on these promises or announcements. The public expenditure on education has actually declined from around 3. 23 percent of GDP in 2000-2001 to 2. 88 percent in the recent times. As a proportion of total government expenditure, it has declined from around 11. 1 percent in 2000-2001 to around 9. 98 percent during UPA rule. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social Accountability (NSA)][84] titled â€Å"[NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule and the Education Sector][85]† provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to a declining priority of education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth in the private expenditure on education also. As per the available information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class population for the education of their children in India has increased by around 1150 percent or around 12. 5 times over the last decade]. [86] [edit] Legislative framework Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:â€Å"The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years. [21]† This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed. 87] However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time limit. [87] Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[88] The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:â⠂¬Å"The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine. [89]† Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:â€Å"Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of sixteen years. [89]† Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:â€Å"†¦ a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years. [89]† The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on November 28, 2001. [90] It was later passed by the upper house—the Rajya Sabha—on May 14, 2002. [90] After being signed by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came into effect. 90] Since then those between the age of 6–14 have a fundamental right to education. [ 91] Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:â€Å"The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'. [49]† Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342. [49] Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. [49